The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad (from upa "by" and ni-ṣad "sit down") translates to "sitting down near", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving spiritual knowledge.(Gurumukh) Other dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret doctrine". 3.1 Muktika canon: major and minor Upanishads.Modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and major Western philosophers. German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called it "the most profitable and elevating reading which. With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they also started to attract attention from a Western audience. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects that are unconnected to the Vedas. Of the remainder, 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE. The Brhadaranyaka is seen as particularly ancient by modern scholars. The mukhya Upanishads predate the Common Era, but there is no scholarly consensus on their date, or even on which ones are pre- or post-Buddhist. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down orally. Along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads (known collectively as the Prasthanatrayi) provide a foundation for the several later schools of Vedanta, including Shankara's Advaita Vedanta (monistic or nondualistic), Ramanuja's (1017–1137 CE) Vishishtadvaita (qualified monism), and Madhvacharya's (1199–1278 CE) Dvaita (dualism).Īround 108 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main ( mukhya) Upanishads. The aim of all Upanishads is to investigate the nature of Ātman (self), and "direct the enquirer toward it." Various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found, and later commentators tried to harmonize this diversity. Vedanta has been interpreted as the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" and alternatively as "object, the highest purpose of the Veda". The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta. Of all Vedic literature, the Upanishads alone are widely known, and their diverse ideas, interpreted in various ways, informed the later traditions of Hinduism. While among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture, the Upanishads document a wide variety of "rites, incarnations, and esoteric knowledge" departing from Vedic ritualism and interpreted in various ways in the later commentarial traditions. They are the most recent part of the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, and deal with meditation, philosophy, consciousness and ontological knowledge earlier parts of the Vedas deal with mantras, benedictions, rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices. The Upanishads ( / ʊ ˈ p ə n ɪ ˌ ʃ ə d z/ Sanskrit: उपनिषद् Upaniṣad pronounced ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts of Hindu philosophy which supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
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